Frédéric Chopin Nocturne No. 20 in B-flat Minor, op. 9, no. 1

Step One—Historical Background

Frédéric Chopin was born in Warsaw, Poland on March 1, 1810 during the era of Romantic music. He was thought of as one of the great masters of Romantic music and he was considered one of the greatest Polish composers and virtuoso pianists of his time. His father was a flautist and a pianist; his mother was a pianist and taught at the Chopin’s elite boarding house. Growing up in an artistic family, Chopin was demonstrating innate, musical talent and a remarkable ability for mimicry at an early age. He composed his first Polonaises’ at the age of seven.

On November 2, 1830, at the age of 20, he left Warsaw for Austria. He hoped to arrive in Italy later on. But because of the Polish November Uprising, Chopin became a refugee of the Polish Great Emigration. It was because of these events that he realized the true beauty of Poland. This influenced his compositions from that point on.

In September 1831, Chopin arrived in Paris and began taking lessons from Friedrich Kalkbrenner. He was accepted into a community of artists and other distinguished company such as: Hector Berlioz, Franz Liszt, Vincenzo Bellini, Ferdinand Hiller, Mendelssohn, Heinrich Heine, Eugène Delacroix, Prince Adam Jerzy Czartoryski, Alfred de Vigny, and Charles-Valentin Alkan. This gave him many opportunities to put his talents on display. Despite his popularity, he rarely gave public performances in Paris. Instead, he preferred to perform in his private apartment for his friends. He received a high income from teaching and composition which freed him from the necessity of performance.

Although he was involved in a slew of terrible romances, a lot of his compositions were based on his experiences. His Waltz in A-flat major (“The Farewell Waltz), the Étude in F minor, which he described as “a portrait of Maria’s soul” and the seven songs that he set to poems written by poets Stefan Witwicki, Józef Zaleski and Adam Mickiewicz were dedicated to Maria Wodziński after a broken engagement.

In his final years, his public popularity as a virtuosic pianist and his popularity amongst his pupils began to wane. In February 1848, he gave his last concert in Paris and left for London with the Revolution of 1848. He returned to Paris at the end of November 1848. He continued to compose even though he could not continue performing. On Wednesday October 17, 1849, Chopin passed away in his Paris apartment.

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Daniel Barenboim was born on November 15, 1942 in Buenos Aires, Argentina. He lives in Berlin and is a critically acclaimed pianist and conductor. He has played a fundamental role in introducing classical music to a wider audience. In addition to his classical music triumphs, he has also been an opponent of the Israeli settlements and of the Israeli government as a supporter of Palestinian rights.

He started playing piano at the age of five and gave his first formal concert at the age of seven in Buenos Aires. In 1952, he moved to Israel with his family and in the summer of 1954, he began studying conducting with Igor Markevitch in Salzburg. In 1967, Barenboim made his conducting debut with the Philharmonia Orchestra in London, which has led to international renown.

Step Two—Open Listenings

This particular Chopin Nocturne is characterized by rhythmic freedom. The right hand moves freely with patterns of eleven, twenty and twenty-two notes in parts of the piece. There are three major sections in the piece: the opening theme, the middle segment and a return to the opening theme. The opening melody is developed and stretched through the first two minutes with arpeggios and scalar flourishes. The middle section is much more triumphant, with octaves frequenting the right hand. The range between the left hand and the right hand also grows larger as excitement is built. We return to the opening theme, which closes off the piece.

Step Three—Syntax

- Measures #1-6 are in B-flat minor

- Measures #6-7.5 are in D-flat major and we modulate back to B-flat minor from measures #7.5-9.5

- Measures 9.5-13.5 return to B-flat minor

- Measures 13.5 to 15 move to E-flat minor with the D-natural note in measure #14 acting as a leading tone

- Measures #15-20 modulate to back to B-flat minor with inversions of the chord arpeggiated between the right and left hand

- A majority of the middle section is in D-flat major, with various diatonic and chromatic chords

- In measures #66-68 we are still in D-flat major

- In measures #68-71.5 we modulate back into B-flat minor

- We stay in B-flat minor from measures 71.5-76

- In measures #76-78 we are in E- flat minor

- In measures #78-85 we are back in B-flat minor

- In measures #85-end we are in B-flat major (also known as a 'Picardy Third')

Step Four—The Sound-in-Time

In the second measure, a diminuendo in the following descending eight-notes follows the crescendo during the repeated F-naturals. In the third measure, there is a tenuto marking on the D-flat that is released on the following B-flat. This is a gesture that is repeated throughout the Nocturne.

(meas. 2-3.5)

The opening theme is developed throughout the Nocturne using fiorituri, which is notated as eighth notes. They are rhythmically irregular because of the division between the right and the left hand. The dynamic shape of the melodic line is also at issue, because of their ascending and descending pattern.

(meas. #11.5-13)

The middle section is marked pianissimo, with accents on the half notes in measures 21 and 22 (and in similar moments later on).

(meas. #21-23)

Chopin uses frequently uses accents in the Nocturne, some of which can be considered as tenuto markings. Accents are placed on the strong beats in measures 52, 54 and 71.

(meas. #52)

(meas. #54)

(meas. #72)

The accent placed on the G-flat in measure 76 indicates that the note is more harmonically and melodically important.

(meas. #76)

Step Five—Representation

A nocturne is generally a musical composition that is inspired by night. Usually, the instrumentation calls for solo piano. While Chopin’s nocturnes are characteristic of other nocturnes of his time, his nocturnes carry a unique tone of their own. For example, his rhythmic expansions are often irregular and free flowing, which is a technique based on the classical music style. He also manipulates traditional counterpoint to create tension and further expand the drama in his pieces.

Step Six—Virtual Feeling

I feel a deep sense of longing and desolation from the very first note. The line in the right hand often imitates an operatic voice by using embellishments in the expansion of the melody. The relationship between the introductory theme and its developments simply lies within the right hand ornamentations. As the piece progresses, we see how the sense of frustration intensifies through the addition of more notes and the changes in rhythmical interpretation. These passages also stretch in height, as the notes of the scale climb higher and higher.

The middle section is particularly innovative because of the subtle changes in harmony. Regardless of the spirited tone, the dissonance we hear on occasion is a mild reminder to the listener and to the performer that this moment is not to be lightly brushed aside.

The accents (or those that are treated as tenuto markings) also contribute to the sense of angst. Generally, they are used to highlight the notes that do not belong to the key or the strong beats of the measure. This pulls the rhythm as well as attracts our attention to the dissonance. These accents are also usually accompanied by tempo markings (i.e. accelerando, ritenuto) and dynamic markings (i.e. diminuendo, pianissimo). The utilization of these markings adds to the chordal texture and gives special meaning to the melodic line.

Step Seven—Onto-historical World

The average person who loves and appreciates Chopin’s work holds nothing to the Polish person who lives and breathes his music. For the Polish person, every melody, every combination of notes is history. This state of revolution has triggered an association with other artists who have suffered through the same occurrences. Chopin’s pieces represent all the irreparable loss, all the blood that was shed to prove one human being’s superiority over another.

Chopin struggled with Tuberculosis, throughout his life, a disease that killed his sister. Despite his sickliness, Chopin was an innovator, an inventor of new musical forms, like the ballade, which holds such significance in composition. His music can be categorized as Romantic, and his music is highly regarded as the cornerstone of Polish classical music. During the suppression (The Polish November 1830 uprising), Chopin was abroad. When the uprising was crushed, Chopin poured his frustrations into his composition (especially that of his Scherzo in B Minor and Revolutionary Etude). He never returned to Poland.

There is a way, an intimate manner by which those who understand and respect Chopin hear and perform his music. These are notes that cannot be hammered down like those of a Joplin Rag but notes that need to be cherished and adored with the highest quality of musicianship. Chopin is recognized as the master of harmony, an innovator. His talent in manipulating his compositions created masterpieces, music at a level where every note reaches every part of your soul. Those notes, when played correctly, take the air straight out of a person’s lungs. One cannot breathe in that moment. One cannot think or talk or wonder in that moment. One can only listen.

Step Eight—Open Listenings

Nocturnes are usually set in ternary form (A-B-A) with the melodic line floating over the texture in the right hand accompanied by bassy arpeggios in the left hand. The piece itself is very despondent, regardless of the moments of hope and the somewhat cheerful B-flat major end chord. Chopin sets the first theme in measures #1-2.5, which is developed throughout. The repeated F-naturals in measure #2 remind me of someone gently sighing. The development of the introductory theme in measures #2.5-5.5 seems desperate, like someone who is trying too hard to get their point across. The beautiful, happier moment (second theme) that is introduced in measure #5.5 is short-lived, as we soon descend back into gloom in measure #7.5.

We are reintroduced to another development of the first theme in measure #9.5, which rises higher during the peak of the scale passage than the previous occurrence. The second theme also returns in measure 13.5, but this time, it stays in the minor key. This gives the sense that it is even more anxious and frantic than before, foreshadowing future thematic events. The second theme leads up to an appassionato in measures #16, 17 and 18, each one climbing higher and higher than the last. They sound like mournful screams, each one louder and louder until measure #18, where it seems as if all loses hope and retreats defeated.

The next section sounds like a battle between two forces, sweet memories from the past and painful happenings of the present. Although a majority of measures #20-67 sound joyful and promising, there are subtle hints of the conflict. For example, between modulations, the notes used—for example the E-natural octave in measure #25, the B-flat octave in measure #26, the F-flat octave in measure #28, the E-natural octave in measure #32, etc.—while harmonically correct stick out of the texture, reminding us that everything is not in fact all right. We are brought to the climax of this section in measure #52 and it confidently reaches its peak in measure #56. Again, this is not a long-lasting victory. He repeats this heroic melody one more time, but insists on a pianissimo dynamic marking, making the tone much less optimistic. With a sforzando in measure #68, we drift back to the first theme.

The first theme remains the same, dreary and heartbreaking. It is in the development of the second theme where he changes things up. This time, instead of just three appassionato climbs in measures #78, 79, 80, he makes two more attempts to express himself. Measure #82 is a less worried cry, but the sforzando in measure 83 is reckless and terribly distraught.

We end with a drop down to a B-flat major chord, but right before the last chord, he inserts a G-flat. He resolves beautifully back to the B-flat major chord, but the G-flat is clearly a reminder that all is not as well as it seems.

Step Nine—Performance Guide

The performance of the Nocturne by Barenboim is absolutely breath taking. He is undoubtedly one of the most accomplished and spectacular pianists of our time. After listening to several recordings of other artists, of the student and professional level on YouTube and iTunes, here are several aspects of his recording that I admire. I think every performer of this piece should consider the attention he pays to the notes and what he chooses to do musically.

In the second measure, and in the various occurrences throughout the piece, the D-flat half note to the B-flat quarter note figure holds significant thematic value. Although a very minute detail, I think one should pay attention to how he articulates the lift at the end of the gesture, as well as how he performs each consequential figure afterwards. Barenboim does this exquisitely; each figure is related but not quite the same as the others. The effect is to influence the rest of the line, as there are only so many variations one can make one two notes.

The introductory melody is adorned with fiorituri, which causes many complications in the rhythmical structure. I suppose a performer would have to decide to play them absolutely rhythmical or take the right amount of liberties in order for the embellishments to sound tasteful. I’ve heard several recordings of both styles and personally, I prefer the ones performed more liberally. It imitates the characteristics of the voice much better as well as articulating a sense of the falling line. In making a decision, one should consider the ascending and descending pattern of the melodic line, as well as the tenuto markings.

In measure #16, one should pay attention to the relationship between shorter and longer rhythmic values. The triplets should come out of the texture and should not be rushed. Rushing occurs mostly during the crescendos, as the excitement causes the lighter triplets to fall away from the strong beats. They should be energetic, but appreciated.

Accelerandos and ritenutos should also be applied with care. In the beginning of the piece, I don’t think it is necessary to exaggerate these. One would want the ending of the piece to be the most dramatic part, not necessarily the beginning. Also, a performer should practice these with metronome, before applying the tempo markings as to maintain the character.

A decision should also be made regarding the difference between accents and tenutos. There is a clear distinction between the two for melodic and harmonic purposes, even though Chopin doesn’t always distinguish between the two. For example, in measures #21 and 22, and other similar passages, the accents marked on the half notes should be treated as syncopations in the rhythm, adjusting the harsher accents to softer tenutos. Playing something with a tenuto gives it a deeper, more stressed tone. One should also consider placing emphasis on notes that do not belong to the key, as the composer often places them there for motivic purposes.

Step Ten—Meta-Critique

The most crucial steps in the eclectic analysis of the Nocturne were those regarding open listening and performance. The historical analysis highlighted the importance of Chopin’s revolutionary attitude. Aside from the placement of the piece in a revolutionary setting, knowledge of with whom Chopin studied as a child doesn’t really influence one’s overall learning and presentation of the piece.

Analysis of how one would go about preparing the piece was particularly interesting because of the open listenings. Getting a sense of how different individuals approached the rhythmic changes and harmonic structure was particularly eye opening, as it would be for any piece. It was very educational to see how different interpretations functioned more or less effectively than others.

Anne-Marie McDermott Meta-Critique

Vivien Schweitzer writes the New York Times review of Anne-Marie McDermott’s Town Hall recital, “Adventures in Piano, Haydn to Tatum”. Although it covers many of the aspects a reader looks for when reading a review of anything, it does miss a few important, informational requirements. The reviewer does not discuss the historical placement of the Haydn Sonatas, but does discuss the new music by Charles Wuorinen and Clarice Assad more thoroughly.

Schweitzer mentions the audience’s reaction toward the world premiere of Wuorinen’s new music piece and sets the piece in a historical framework, also characterizing Wuorinen’s work as a “proponent of serialist modernism”. She recognizes his place amongst his colleagues, stating that his music is “highly academic” compared to those of the Minimalist, neo-Romantic, border-hopping eclectic genre (thus discussing other genres of the time period). Finally, she also mentions that one of Wuorinen’s movements seems influenced by Scriabin, which distinguishes the influence of an earlier composer. In her review of “When Art Showed Up” by Clarice Assad, the references Art Tatum’s influence. She also discusses the instrumentation of the piece (for solo piano), and its Baroque, Classical and Jazz influence and allusions.

The review includes personal, emotional thoughts of the reviewer, which turns away from a more formal analysis. It is difficult for a concert review to be formal, unless the focus is on traditional, syntactical analysis, because it has to reflect the reviewer’s opinion.

Psychological Distance and the Aesthetic Experience

In this chapter, we encounter the topic of aesthetic experience through the theory of physical distance by Edward Bullough. The main purpose of this chapter is to expose the faults of Edward Bullough’s distance theory. According to Bullough, physical distance is both an element for the “aesthetic consciousness” and “criterion of the beautiful” (page 91). He describes physical distance as a specific type of consciousness that is applied between a subject and his affections. Physical distance is conducive of the “aesthetic consciousness”, which Bullough believes is a voluntary and deliberate action.

The act of distance is both a positive and a negative force: it both promotes inhibition (con) and elaboration of experience (pro). Psychological blocking of normal actions is the first aspect of distance. He believes that like normal, common emotional and physical feelings (i.e. hunger, fatigue, happiness), people can become more of less distant. George Dickie does not take issue with Bullough’s hypothetical phenomenon, but believes there is a need for corrections. He believes that Bullough’s theory should “apply to all aesthetic experience, not just the threatening sublime” (page 96).

Bullough believes that as a psychological force, inhibition is needed to control practical concerns for safety in order to allow for the aesthetic experience. There exists a fear that art will be confused with reality because of “under-distancing”. For example, an audience member who loses distance by becoming too psychologically involved in the plot and runs onstage to “attack the villain and save the heroine” (page 97). Normal, every day emotions do not require distancing. But in order to have aesthetic experiences, one must be separate from one’s practical emotions.

The question at hand is, do we actually, naturally distance ourselves when looking at art of experiencing nature? When in danger, do we exude a psychological force which distances us, allowing us to remove the “practical side of things” (page 101)? We may not be thinking about danger at every moment, but that is not because the thought has been removed entirely. Consequently, we are either able to concentrate on the work of art or we find ourselves distracted. Bullough’s theory is weak because he says that distancing is necessary in order to appreciate the quality of objects in art and/or in nature.

Dickie concludes that in the case of art, there is no reason to have psychological restraint, because our subconscious understands that we are observing a work of art. It is rather fascinating to consider whether we, as an audience, distance ourselves in artistic scenarios. When partaking in a concert, is it necessary to separate ourselves psychologically from the performance in order to better appreciate the aesthetic experience? I don’t think that we make a conscious effort to do so. If it happens, it occurs subconsciously and without thought.

I also don’t believe that it is a requirement. There is no psychological force that controls an audience, therefore demonstrating that one can appreciate a situation while maintaining some form of restraint. But once something becomes too forced, it loses its magic. This includes all forms of art: music, paintings, light installations, etc. Perhaps it is more important to maintain objectivity in order to make judgment, but to enjoy an experience it is not necessary. An aesthetic experience should be one that happens organically, regardless of the psychological distance.

An Eclectic Method for Sound, Form, and Reference

In this chapter, our focus is to evaluate the capabilities of the eclectic method and its sensitivity to the levels of musical significance. We continue our discussion of the importance of maintaining openness to achieve philosophical understanding. The “eclectic method must be penetrable; it must allow any level of musical significance to pass through or penetrate its questioning structure and add to the listener/analyst’s database” (page 179). It is important to eliminate prejudice and past influences and remain open to new meanings. There are three general approaches to analysis discussed in this book: phenomenological, conventional and Hermeneutic. These three categories must be allowed to function independently in order for a distinction between explanation, description and interpretation to be made. We must be permitted to ask questions about the work and also to answer questions about the work.

The eclectic method is comprised of ten steps: historical, open-listening, musical syntax, sound-in-time, musical representation, human feelings, onto-historical world of the composer, another open-listening, performance and meta-critique of the entire analysis. The purpose of step one is to place the work in its historical setting as well as examining the composer’s total oeuvre. Step two aims to promote openness, allowing the listener to hear the work from an entirely unbiased viewpoint. In this step, one should suspend any analysis of the work. In step three, the listener/analyst brings traditional musical syntax to the table. In this step, one suspends any phenomenological or hermeneutic data and focus on conventional Roman Numeral analysis. In step four, a “phenomenological description of the sound-in-time is performed. This shifts the previous, more traditional Roman Numeral analysis to one that is more literal. Step five beings the first level of referential meaning by providing an analysis of the work’s text. Step six discusses the work’s depiction of human emotion. This clarifies the concept of “virtual feeling” and demonstrates how music converts the actual into the virtual. Step seven is the final level of referential meaning. In this step, we employ hermeneutic analysis in order to explore the onto-historical world of the composer. Step eight returns to step two, an open-listening of the work. This time, we approach the open-listening with a more informed ear, using the “six strata of musical significance—factual history, syntax, sound-in-time, representation, virtual feelings, and onto-historical world” independently from one another (page 185). The six are brought together to further our experience of the vast array of the levels of musical significance. Step nine is a performance of the work, with a performance guide provided. The purpose of this step is for the listener/analyst to better understand the work in making interpretive decision in preparation for the performance. Suggestions to better the technical and musical aspects of the work are presented in the performance guide. Step ten is a meta-critique of all the steps. The focus is the reveal the strengths and weaknesses of the analysis through the eclectic method.

As everything finally comes together, I can’t help but wonder if this is all just too much. Personally, I dislike in depth analysis. I do enjoy making informed decisions, but there is something about applying one’s own, natural intuition to a work. It makes it unique, because everyone is so inherently different. Reading about the history of the composer is helpful, and placing the work in its historical period is necessary. But all the same, we are in our own time period now. Why can’t we apply what we feel now, in the present day, to the piece, regardless of its historical style?

Knowing when a specific note, chord or scale is foreign to the key signature is particularly beautiful when acknowledged. There is a reason (hopefully) why a composer placed a certain dissonance or adds elements that are out of character to his work. But identifying every key change and every leading voice simply strips away the magic for me. Yes, it is informative. But necessary? I’m not sure.

Tenebrae: Second Movement by Osvaldo Golijov

Osvaldo Golijov was born in La Plata, Argentina on December 5, 1960. Growing up in an Eastern European, Jewish household, he found himself surrounded by Jewish liturgical and klezmer music. In addition, he was immersed in classical chamber music and heavily influenced by another composer, Astor Piazzolla. Golijov studied with Gerardo Gandini in La Plata, Mark Kopytman at the Jerusalem Rubin Academy, George Crumb at the University of Pennsylvania, where he received his Ph.D. and Oliver Knussen at Tanglewood.

In 2000, he was commissioned by German Helmuth Riling to write a Passion based on St. Mark to commemorate the 250^th anniversary of the death of Johann Sebastian Bach. Subsequently, Golijov composed numerous works for a large variety of instrumentations, including but not limited to: solo repertoire, chamber pieces, operas and orchestral works. He demonstrates an incredible dexterity for incorporating multiple techniques from various musical eras into one work.

(Kronos Quartet)

He received two Grammys in 2007 for Best Opera Recording and Best Classical Contemporary Composition for his opera “Ainadamar”. The Post and Courier called “Tenebrae” “powerful and immediate”. Wes Blomster of Andante.com called Golijov “one of today’s most gifted and appealing composers”. In addition to having received an abundance of awards from prestigious institutions around the world, he has also established quite a large international audience.

Tenebrae, recorded by the Kronos Quartet, was released in 2003 with Osvaldo Golijov’s album Oceana. The second movement begins in minimalist style, the instrumentation slowly layering with singing but still melodic fragments and other simple textures. As the piece develops, we find ourselves in the realm of Bach and Monteverdi, with beautifully resolved dissonances and baroque harmonies. At the climax of the movement, the stormy texture is reminiscent of Vivaldi. We close with the original, similar tones except this time the musicians play their soaring melodies with more vibrato, interchanging between the instruments.

The historical elements of a contemporary work are not as significant because many of these pieces are derived from numerous periods. Tenebrae, for example, contains multiple styles ranging from Baroque, to early Classical and even utilizing modern day techniques. A historical critique also misses much of the analysis of the actual, technical structure of the piece…but perhaps this is because of the brevity of the assignment. However, it is useful to consider the composer’s background, ouerve, in order to better understand his compositional voice. The facts collected about Golijov from research explain his tendency toward minimalism and folk-like, romantic melodies.

Heidegger’s Philosophy of Art

Heidegger’s philosophy of art makes a shift away from the concepts revealed in Being and Time. He states that in order to reveal human’s awareness of existence, we must first look at death. Dasein is limited to this idea, that existing in reality is “being-toward-death” (page 123). This should not be confused as a negative concept, but as a way of recognizing one’s connection to time and to the world. Chapter Five furthers the discussion of Heidegger’s deconstruction of the Western Metaphysical tradition.

Heidegger realized that the same Western metaphysical model he was trying to challenge limited his previous method. In order to repair the problem, he needed to question the technical and manipulative style of his previous work. This required Heidegger to make a shift toward a meditative and poetic position. Meditative thinking gives man openness, allowing man to wait for Being. This is acceptable because “being human is distinguished by the potential to let things ‘come into unconcealment’” (page 124).

Heidegger returns to his roots in Greek methodology, remembering that thinking is a collected resource. Meditative thinking frees the will, which marks the response to things. Responsiveness requires waiting, which consequently leads to openness. The wait represents a form of subjectivity, because things disappear under the weight of man’s desire. Heidegger’s return to Greek thought represents an ontological difference between Western metaphysical notions and meditative thinking.

As we begin our discussion of art, Heidegger references all mediums. Our first view of a work gives us the impression that the artist produces the work. Then we consider that the artist is defined by his works; he is an artist because of his art works. Thus, art works define the artist. Separately, artist and art works are defined by art. The three categories—ready-to-hand, present-to-hand and Dasein—that Heidegger defines in Being and Time do not include art works.

The problem with ready-to-hand, is that it is too general. This keeps the thing too distant from the viewer. The issue with present-to-hand, is that things disappear under the weight of the definition. We do not comprehend beyond the physical, surface attributes and do not allow the thing to reveal itself. The third interpretation, Dasein, better interprets our view of things. It goes below the surface level of analysis to the roots of the “matter-form concept,” thus becoming “understanding of the nature of equipment rather than the thingly character of mere things” (page 127).

For example, a pair of shoes is not an art work because it is an accurate imitation of the actual object itself. Before they were painted, the shoes existed in actual form. The truth of the shoes in their actual form is hidden from the user, but revealed through the painting. A painting of the shoes converts the actual shoes into virtual form. Art is a representation of human feelings and experiences, a manipulation of virtual space.

The artist’s creation brings forth the character of the work’s mediums, which is something that requires the opportunity toward openness. The “world” of the artist is the “existential frame of reference of the living subject, the context within which human experience and significance take place” (page 132). Heidegger adds a historical notion to Husserl’s theory, stating that the “world” is ever-nonobjective as long as we maintain the cycle of beginning and end (life and death). The purpose of art is to divulge reality by describing and interpreting the world of the artist.

Heidegger then goes on to discuss the world of the art work. In order to be an art work, each work must establish a world with openness. This concept of virtual space establishes the structure and liberates the Open world by eliminating the death sentence. The world, through openness, is allowed to show itself. He highlights the difference between capital and lowercase “O”s a capital “O” is indicative of the ontological world and a lowercase “o” indicates making space for the world of the artist.

I am baffled and intrigued by the concepts presented in this chapter. The idea of considering death in order to better understand current existence is fascinating because it promotes looking at a bigger picture. Too often do we find ourselves trapped and obsessing over minute details. The separation between the world of the artist and the world of the art work and how they function together provides a more successful method for analysis. We frequently assume that the artist creates the work of art, and not the other way around. It is important to question the function of the work in its ontological world perhaps before and at least at the same time as we consider the artist’s purpose.

Heidegger’s Hermeneutic Phenomenology

Heidegger took many concepts from Husserl, placing him on the edge of Hermeneutic phenomenology. At the same time, Heidegger understood the uselessness of developing a purist method because of his life philosophy. Phenomenological methods are never pure because they are interpretations developed by researchers who are not recognized culturally. History, just like the discussion of language in previous chapters, is accompanied by underlying prejudice. Heidegger believes that humans can only understand around their “fundamental and prejudicial pre-understanding” (page 89). When executing an analysis, a human first projects his prejudices, setting an already biased canvas.

According to Heidegger, this is an inescapable conclusion, which precludes any final purist attitude. We are no longer using phenomenology to transcend above history. Instead, using Heidegger’s method, we find ourselves already within our historical and cultural background and can only make analytical conclusions that are appropriate. We are expected to have biases because without the existence of the world, there would be nothing to separate from. Thus, our existence in the world is a pre-condition. Heidegger reminds us that we are making analytical decisions given our historical placement.

Heidegger never finished his study on “Being”, but determined early on that its importance has been forgotten in Western Philosophy. “Being”, however universal, only exists as an issue for man because he is the only one who can interpret it. The relationship between man and “Being” is circular, as man can interpret “Being”, but such a power is originally stemmed from “Being”. “…the nature of human existence is already formulated to some degree beforehand” (page 104). The analysis of “Being”, is a continuous task because there are already many factors that pre-exist. This idea is significant because it marks the importance of having some knowledge of the past in order to make sense of the present. In order to understand the concept of ‘Being”, “man, must be intelligible and comprehensible” (page 105).

Thus man must have a grasp on logos—Greek word for words—in reference to man’s ability to use language. But what happens when man’s access to phainomenon and logos are removed? Here, we are introduced to Plato’s “The Allegory of the Cave”, where man exists in a “cave of ignorance” (page 106). Man is essentially stripped of all cultural understanding to live in a cave with no light. He is exposed to the outside world and sunlight for the first time in his later years.

As we further our philosophical understanding of Western Civilization, I can only wonder about the word “truth”. Throughout the text, we are given knowledge: concepts are explained, facts are told to us. How can we understand and/or know what truth is if the only truth we know is what we have been exposed to?

Heidegger believes we should give “freedom” to the object of interest “in order to let it show itself as it is in its Being” (page 109). So far, setting music “free”, has lead us down many roads. In some cases, the composition, the performance, and/or the gesture have been successful. In others, there is definitely some lack in quality. One might say we should apply the basic methodology of language and philosophy to better understand our craft. According to philosophical ideas, language, or logos, is a basic, human characteristic that makes us unique. And according to Dr. Ferrara’s earlier chapters, music cannot be considered a language because it is not concrete. Where do we go from here?

Husserl’s Phenomenology

“Phenomenology is a way of doing philosophy, a system by which things can be scrutinized by consciousness in order to ascertain their essential and necessary characteristics” (page 51). Husserl wanted to establish a phenomenological foundation for the natural and human sciences by providing a methodology based upon principles of absolutely verifiable foundations of the immediate, conscious experience. In a sense, taking away preconceived notions was a better way to accept and understand the present. By removing predetermined assumptions, this philosophical method would “purify”, allowing the structure of science to be accompanied by the “means by which to examine the roots of all knowledge” (page 51). The pitfalls of pyschologism were due to man’s subjective mind and his inability to leave presumptions behind.

Empirical realism is better examined if there is “focus on the things of consciousness rather than consciousness itself” (page 52). Only when one is aware of one’s consciousness can self-awareness be achieved. Assuming that consciousness is active, only then can it affect that which involves the “non-self”. Alternatively, something is only given meaning if it is engaged by the conscious. Husserl believed that in order to better understand noema—things that are intended by consciousness—we must remove previous biases in order to better secure knowledge using phenomenological methods.

Husserl and Kant have similar philosophies in that they are both centered on the conscious and the real world that exists uncontrolled outside of the conscious. Husserl’s phenomenological intent is to “provide uncolored, unbiased and systematic descriptions of the objects of experience without resorting to either of the theoretical positions of realism or idealism” (page 60). We expect that our perception of objects will be the same over time because we maintain that objects will retain the same physical consistency and “protentions” (future anticipations) because our conscious holds the same past “retentions” (past memories). Husserl focuses on the present tense because characteristics of time in his philosophy stem from the present.

By providing “a complete science, with its own foundations and presumptions grounded in the absolute self evidence of perception” (page 63), Husserl believed that this would provide analytical certainty. He began by using two stages of phenomenological reduction: transcendental and eidetic. The first stage requires a transformation from ordinary thought to that of the phenomenological. In ordinary thought, one sees an object literally and for what it is. Switching to phenomenological changes the point of view, one sees the object as it perceives itself. “This shift results in an examination of the directedness of consciousness” (page 64).

In order to better analyze, we turn inward to our conscious, disposing of any assumptions we may carry with us from any “retentions” or “protentions”. During “transcendental reduction”, also called epoche, “both the reality of the world and the subject are put into brackets or momentarily suspended” (page 65). This does not intend to remove their existence but is to temporarily pause any questions regarding their existence. In order to elucidate the second stage of epoche—defining central structures and relationships—eidos, an objects essence, is mentioned. This is done to discover universal knowledge about the objects and clarify what is secondary and what is essential to an object’s structure.

Husserl’s later phenomenology discusses “objectivity”, which can only be a factor if it applies to an object for everyone. In Husserl’s mind, there is only one “I”, everything outside is considered an “Other”, otherwise referred to as solipsism. He tries to balance between the “I”, a phenomenological reduction of the world and the “objectivity and reality of the Other” (page 75). Man brings “meaning” to the world through art, music, dance, books—things which don’t necessarily have any importance in the natural world (to animals, trees, flowers)—thus giving it significance. Ultimately, he fails his attempts to overcome psychologism and give structure to his phenomenology. It is impossible to assume a transparent ego when we sue language to communicate; language is already accompanied by basic, hidden biases. Inevitably, Husserl cannot accomplish the goals he set for himself because of inherent biases.

I think the most compelling discussion in this chapter is with regard to the concept of time. In Husserl’s philosophy, the main component is the motion of time and its effect on the conscious. The same question applies to the current state of music, because there is confusion about where music is going and confusion about how much of the past can apply. If Husserl is correct, and past and future concepts stem from the present, then are we holding on too tightly to the past without a firm enough grasp on the future? We are supposed to release retentions and protentions in order to better understand our current situation, but I think we’ve lost our grip on the accepted standards.

Since man is the reason why music (and other forms of art) exists at all, does that change its significance? It is difficult to question the idea of significance, because by doing so we are losing our objectivity. And it is hardly possible to categorize and systematize music on a theoretical and conceptual plane, so how are we supposed to determine what is secondary and what is essential? Ultimately, this should all show how past gestures and future endeavors could bring us closer to setting the criterion for the present.

(all photos in this post are taken from: http://nl.ijs.si/~damjan/phen.html)

Referential Meaning in Music

What does music mean? The concept of referential meaning has created much controversy in the mere definition of the words: “a symbol has meaning when acquaintance with it causes one…to think of something else” (page 7). When we think of words acting as symbols, the meaning becomes clear. One hears the word “cup” and thinks of a vessel in which liquids are held. But how can we define music in such terms, when the concept of a C-major chord, viewed from separate contexts, can have multiple definitions?

(Music Makes Me Sing)

This is the exact reason that musicologists avoid studying music on a referential level. There exists a lack of control and systematization that could ultimately result in analytical chaos, as Dr. Ferrara so quaintly puts. If we step back and consider the idea of analysis from a scientific stand point, there are two qualities we seek to achieve: objectivity and verifiability. Objectivity occurs when one remains neutral—detached and value free—to a subject. Verifiability describes the ability to reenact the process and achieve similar results. But from the viewpoint of a musical analyst, the “conventional systems of music analysis…do not satisfy the classic criteria of objectivity and verifiability” because there are so many factors, abstract and/or real which impact the final product (page 9). In a world reliant on systems, like that of the scientific, this might create chaos. However, in the musical world, instead of confusion, the lack of objectivity and verifiability often gives “richness and demonstrable insight” (page 9).

Langer’s description of man in the “realms of nature” states that the image of man is “active, rational and free” (page 10). Man’s ability to render experiences into language is unique because it demonstrates our place in the natural world. Armed with basic survival instincts, man is capable of extending the limits of scientific reason to cultural understanding (i.e. language, history, art, religion) because the power of the mind includes an ability to see, rationalize and conform.

The supernaturalistic-transcendent perspective describes man’s gift as one that is given from God, not from nature. This is taken from the Cartesian dualistic perspective that says man is only unique from nature if man’s origin is supernatural. This being said, man is also not part of the animal world. With development of technology and science, Cartesianism is further disproved with the naturalistic-reductive perspective: “man’s gift of superiority comes from nature, not God. Man is ‘naturally’ selective and therefore continuous with nature” (page 11). The specification that the theory is “reductive” is because it describes that the “meaning of man is reduced to the laws of a machine” (page 11).

While Langer agrees with the Darwinian model—that man is evolved from nature—she also understands that man is above other beings in nature. She then set out to construct a “naturalistic-transcendent perspective, which accepts that man is indeed evolved “form nature but understands his transcendence above other beings in nature” (page 12). What man knows is directly related to what he can ask, and the ability to ask and communicate sets us above other beings in nature.

(Darwin "Theory of Evolution")

Music defies all rational systems because unlike the facts of science, it does not have fixed meaning. “[M]usic cannot properly be called a language” because it is not comprised of fixed meaning and is based on the concept of feeling. It is understood on two different levels: logically and intuitively. A composer captures real life feelings/experiences into virtual form, a “metaphorical image of actual life” (page 15).

Human existence is permanent, but permanence is ever changing. We’ve been blessed and haunted by the sense of a beginning and an end. A web of beginnings and endings connects the past, the future and the present, but the transitions are hardly smooth. Why did the premiere of Stravinsky’s “Rite of Spring” cause such unrest that the audience to rioted in anger? In our time, his music is seen and heard as a seminal 20^th century composition. Our appreciation for what is right and wrong in musical gestures and understanding has shifted so drastically that it is terrifying to consider what would have happened had the audience of Stravinsky’s time heard a George Crumb work. What visually and aurally connects our historical presence?

(George Crumb 1929-)

Perhaps it is because there are more performers nowadays than there ever were. In the introduction of “Philosophy and the Analysis of Music”, Dr. Ferrara distinguishes between the average music listener and the music performer. The standard has not been set for what is acceptable in new music, so it has increased the disorder in an already existing confusion about virtual feeling. Because music does not have fixed meaning, and because the level of expertise has become more varied in performance, has this affected our tolerance for change?

Introduction Summary and Continued Abstract Development

(Mars Rover)

I’d like to think that we have yet again reached an age of exploration. This always happens during transitions between eras—a time where there is no obvious direction. People are confused by the present, reminiscing over the past and dreaming of the future. There is room for experimentation and there is room for forgiveness (or perhaps too much room), as we have yet to form new guidelines.

The purpose of the book is to make an attempt to “better understand the dynamic relationship between the various levels of musical significance”. That is, Dr. Ferrara makes an effort to methodically organize the levels individually and their interaction. The three main categories are phenomenological (sound in time), conventional (explanations of musical form/syntax) and hermeneutic (interpretation of musical reference).

He distinguishes the difference between actual musical experience and music itself, stating that although the two are related one cannot describe the other. He also reminds us of the difference between the “ordinary usage” of the word music versus its’ meaning for “music listeners”. This refers to “bridging”, a term which describes the movement between intrinsic levels of musical significance and referential levels. Music has the ability to draw out human expression/feelings, represent the historical world of the composer and provoke thought. This concept demonstrates referential meanings with regard to their psychological associations.

(Steinway Model-B)

Listeners of music and musicians themselves understand music on a more comprehensive level. Listeners develop their taste and knowledge of the musical language through exposure to the art. Performers, on the other hand, must consider sound in time (phenomenology), how sound is formed into musical syntax and the unfolding message of a work’s reference. This allows the performer to provide a more successful analysis and performance of the work at hand. This shows the intimate connection between words, musical experience and education, enabling the musician to project his/her understanding into the unfolding referential message of a musical work.

Finally, the eclectic method describes how movement through the justification, formulation and implementation of the method endeavors to provide bridges for musical sound, form and reference. Traditionally, history provides an understanding of the present. In other words, all musical understanding is rooted in particular historical perspective, also allowing us to understand the present.

The attention span strays within a matter of seconds. The transformation of music has developed through time, changed and molded itself to fit (or corrupt) the current period. As we travel through the space of change, one can see that pieces by different composers become more distinct, even pieces by the same composer become rather unique from each other. Clearly, physical movements in performance have also changed, as musical genres give birth to musical subgenres. Movements that are acceptable now at a rock concert would hardly pass in Mozart’s time. Like memories of the mind, we wonder how a Baroque and Classical past, connects spiritually and physically to our Contemporary future.

(Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart 1756-1791)

We have reached a point where we are buying into performance, gestures if you will. People attend shows to see exaggerated emotion or a physical movement that separates itself from the uniform crowd. They are paying for a feature that cannot be imitated or preserved by anyone except the performer. I think the most efficient start would be to explore the audience, psychologically analyze what makes them react in order to answer the question of connectivity. What visually or aurally holds audience attention and why? Are they only pretending to enjoy what they see, swayed by majority reaction? And if not, are they simply amazed?